Mathematics in Early Childhood Part 3 (Counting and Number Operations)

Counting and Number Operations.

In this article, Counting and Number Operations will be discussed.

Teaching Counting

Counting is vital because it helps children understand the base-ten system, which includes the numbers from 0 to 9, do number operations, and problem-solve, so children learn to count easily and accurately while figuring out the quantity of objects (Novakowski, 2015). While counting is important, it is not enough to only learn number concepts; children need to understand comparison, cardinality, and one-to-one correspondence (Chaillé, 2021).

There are two types of counting, namely rote counting, where number names are recited from memory, and rational counting, where a number name is matched to an object in a collection (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). The second type of counting is more engaging and more practical in everyday life.

These are the following counting opportunities, namely knowing number name sequence, one-to-one correspondence, cardinality, stability, relative size, making connections between number names, quantities and symbols, counting forwards, backwards, or middle, and base-ten structure (Novakowski, 2015). Hence, a wide variety of learning opportunities can be provided in a classroom setting.

The Big Ideas for Counting are firstly that counting is used to find out the quantity in a collection, and secondly, it also has rules that apply to any collection (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013).

Big Idea #1 of Counting

Firstly, counting is used to find out the quantity in a collection. This Big Idea recognises counting as related to number sense, where the main purpose of counting is the cardinal use of numbers, which then allows children to use number operation activities or even to do subitising (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Cardinality is understanding that the last number counted represents the group (Chaillé, 2021). Children can then move on to using sets during play with the foundational understanding of quantity.

Big Idea #2 of Counting

Secondly, counting has rules that apply to any collection. This Big Idea has the following four key principles: stable order, one-to-one correspondence, order irrelevance, and cardinality (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013).

Stable order refers to always starting from one when counting, so if a child has not mastered this principle, he will use random numbers during counting, and this is not just important for number sequence memorisation but each number is bigger than the one that precedes it and smaller than the next, and because the number system is base-10, every number that ends with 9 will go back to 0 (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Children should be able to count in the correct number sequence from 1 to 10, and 10 comes after 9.

One-to-one correspondence happens when children say each number that corresponds to an object in the group (Chaillé, 2021). This is a skill that often takes time for children to develop because they may point to different objects during counting. Adults can guide children to point to objects slowly and articulate the number words.

Order irrelevance builds on stable order and generalises one-to-one correspondence, because no matter which object the counting starts from, the result will remain the same, and the fact that number words do not change the objects themselves but are only used during counting, but then this affects reality, so when objects are counted, they should be set aside to avoid confusion (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). So if a child counts the number of friends seated in a circle, it does not matter if the child counts from the left or right. The child will also understand that calling a friend by a number does not mean that it will be their name. Adults should also guide children to set aside counted objects during counting.

Cardinality is knowing that the last number used is the quantity of objects, and cardinality serves two purposes: children use numbers to apply to objects, and children use the last number to represent the quantity of objects (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). While this may be a simple concept as well, it takes a while for young children to understand.

Teaching Number Operations

Number Operations are tools that need a foundation of understanding that every operation tells a story (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). These operations simply refer to the following mathematical concepts: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

The Big Ideas for Number Operations are firstly that sets can be changed through joining or separating, secondly, sets are compared using numerosity and are ordered by more than, less than, and equal to, and thirdly, a quantity can be decomposed into equal or unequal parts, and the parts can be composed to form a whole (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013).

Big Idea #1 of Number Operations

Firstly, sets can be changed through joining or separating. Sets can change when objects are added or removed, so children need to know the definitions of adding and taking away, and there are strategies like counting all, where a child counts a set of objects from the first object whenever there is a change, and counting on, which is when new objects are added, but the number continues from the last counted object (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). As children will be more inclined to use the counting all strategy, teachers can provoke thinking and encourage them to use counting on instead.

Big Idea #2 of Number Operations

Secondly, sets are compared using numerosity and are ordered by more than, less than, and equal to. Children will naturally know to use visual comparison to tell if a set has more objects, and they use matching where sets are placed next to each other with one-to-one correspondence to determine the quantities, and even if the objects vary in size, children know that they are only focusing on the number of objects (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). So, even if a larger quantity of small erasers is placed next to a small quantity of big erasers, children understand that there are more small erasers.

Ordering is about ordinal numbers of first to last or most to fewest, thus the order of number sequences tells the relationship between sets, in which sets are then determined whether which has more than, less than, or equal to each other (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Ordinal numbers are also how children attribute numbers to quantity, as they use the terms first, second, and third.

Big Idea #3 of Number Operations

Thirdly, a quantity can be decomposed into equal or unequal parts, and the parts can be composed to form a whole. The concept of subitising is required as children learn that there are multiple ways to get a certain quantity, and they can add and subtract automatically, but this differs from rote thinking, as it is an understanding of part/whole relationships (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). So, ten can be five and five, but also eight and two.

Role of the teacher

So what does the role of a teacher look like? A classroom should have mathematically rich resources like tools, materials, and manipulatives, and also utilise space well (Chaillé, 2021). A teacher can look at the walls or outdoor areas beyond just the work tables or shelves that typically contain the mathematical activities. Children can use measuring tools to learn math concepts and use materials to count.

Teachers can also implement strategies that include intentional lessons and activities, learning centres, or provocations where children’s thinking is triggered as the teacher encourages a new direction of play, though the children do not necessarily have to follow the teacher’s guidance (Chaillé, 2021). These can include the teacher adding mathematical tools for children to use.

Therefore, as simple as counting and number operations may seem to adults, these ideas are more relevant and enlightening for children to learn more about the world around them.

 

References

Brownell, J., Chen, J.-Q., Ginet, L., & Hynes-Berry, M. (2013). Big Ideas of Early Mathematics. US: Pearson Education.

Chaillé, C. (2021). ECE314 Facilitating children's mathematical thinking (study guide). Singapore: Singapore University of Social Sciences.

Novakowski. (2015). Counting.

 

 

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Mathematics in Early Childhood Part 2 (Sets and Number Sense)

Sets and number sense.

Previously, it has been mentioned that these are the topics of mathematics: Sets, number sense, counting, number operations, pattern, measurement, data analysis, spatial relationships, and shape. The Big Ideas stem from each of these topics. For part 2 of this series of articles, the topics of Sets and Number Sense will be elaborated.

Traditional classrooms use a behaviourist approach towards teaching numbers, with the main teaching strategy being direct instruction, whereby questions asked only have a correct answer, and the teacher gives the information and rewards children for answering accurately (Chaillé, 2021). While this method is better for children with special needs, it is better to use a constructivist approach for mainstream children. Mathematics can also be integrated into the classroom throughout the daily routine, during children’s play, and in the curriculum (Chaillé, 2021).

Whereas with a constructivist approach, the teacher creates a rich mathematical environment but gives little direct instruction and instead allows children to explore mathematics in their own ways (Chaillé, 2021). This requires a higher level of skill from the teacher, as the environment must be constructed to allow children to acquire math skills organically, and the teacher does not interfere with their learning.

The teacher is also observant of children’s mathematical explorations and caters for materials in response to that, such as by placing images of buildings of different heights when children are using blocks to create buildings (Chaillé, 2021). Intentional teaching directly contrasts rote learning and occurs in a supportive play environment, because children learn mathematical concepts when play and intentional teaching are combined, so for educators, they have to overcome their fear or lack of confidence in teaching mathematics (Knaus, 2017). The role of the teacher is to be a facilitator and observe children during play.

Many educators still believe that mathematics should only be taught in formal schooling years rather than during early childhood, though there has been research done to show that these experiences are crucial for children’s later development, so educators must understand that mathematics is for every early learner, and that it is beyond shapes and numbers (Knaus, 2017).

Next, the topics of Sets and Number Sense will be introduced.

Teaching Sets

Sets mean using attributes to create collections, with the same collection able to be sorted in different categories, and they can be compared and organised (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). For instance, a child may sort some beads by size or colour, and thus has created sets.

Three Big Ideas on sets are that attributes are used to group collections into sets, a single collection can be sorted in a variety of ways, and that sets can be ordered and compared (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). The concept of sorting is defined as unique from matching, as it is about reorganising an entire collection or set into at least two subsets (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). For instance, a box of marbles is sorted into blue or green.

Big Idea #1 of Sets

Find my match.

What's my rule?

Firstly, the use of attributes to help children sort collections into sets will be explored. The teacher can guide the child to use different attributes, like colour, shape, or similar objects, or even increase the difficulty of the activity by adding more attributes or objects to the collection, and inviting children to figure out which object is taken away (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). There is a wide variety of methods to be used with just a simple box of small manipulatives. In the first image, the teacher uses all stars in the activity, and gets the child to find the exact colour to match the star. The game "What's my rule?" requires children to take out objects that share an attribute that the rest of the objects do not have.

Big Idea #2 of Sets

People sort activity.

Secondly, a single collection can be sorted in a variety of ways. This is a more difficult concept, but children can learn it through self-discovery during play, where they understand that there are many ways a collection can be sorted (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). If a child has sorted a box of crayons by colour, the crayons can also be sorted by size. In the People Sort activity, children understand that there are so many ways to sort objects.

Big Idea #3 of Sets

Thirdly, sets are able to be ordered and compared. This involves comparing sets to find out which is better, though it is more often about quantity, so children need to explore more to understand the concept (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Children will naturally count the objects of each set during play and conclude that one of them has a higher quantity.

Teaching Number Sense

Moving on to Number Sense, which is about developing a purposeful sense of quantity, and the Big Ideas include learning that numbers are used in different mathematical or non-mathematical ways, knowing that quantity symbolises an attribute for a set of objects with numbers being used to name quantities, and lastly, the quantity of a small collection can be understood without counting (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013).

Big Idea #1 of Number Sense

Firstly, learning that numbers are used in different mathematical or non-mathematical ways. Numbers are not just used to describe quantity or order, as they can become identifiers like a name, and people normally do not think about all the other numbers that precede it (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Hence, just like finding the classroom 105 does not require children to start from 1, numbers may sometimes have a different function.

Big Idea #2 of Number Sense

Secondly, knowing that quantity symbolises an attribute for a set of objects, with numbers being used to name quantities. Numbers are sometimes used as attributes, but other attributes must be ignored to understand them, as quantity is a mental image when a child understands the relationships between sets (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Usage of this Big Idea thus involves the child having prior knowledge of sets in order to compare two collections of objects.

Big Idea #3 of Number Sense

Thirdly, the quantity of a small collection can be understood without counting. Subitising is being able to tell “how many” in collections of objects quickly, without counting (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Children who have developed in their mathematical thinking can tell how many dots a face of a die has without physically counting each of them.

References

Brownell, J., Chen, J.-Q., Ginet, L., & Hynes-Berry, M. (2013). Big Ideas of Early Mathematics. US: Pearson Education.

Chaillé, C. (2021). ECE314 Facilitating children's mathematical thinking (study guide). Singapore: Singapore University of Social Sciences.

Knaus, M. (September, 2017). Supporting Early Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood Settings. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 42(3), 4-13. doi:https://doi-org.suss.remotexs.co/10.23965/AJEC.42.3.01

 

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Mathematics in Early Childhood Part 1 (Introduction of Big Ideas of Mathematics)

Mathematics in Early Childhood.

According to Howard Gardner, there are eight types of intelligence that people have, one of them being logical-mathematical, which involves reasoning, problem-solving, and understanding patterns (Cherry, 2026). All over the world, mathematics is one of the key domains in the preschool curriculum. In this series of 5 articles, the key Big Ideas of Mathematics will be introduced and elaborated.

Big Ideas of Mathematics

So what is a Big Idea? A Big Idea is used in early childhood years, and it must be about structural mathematical concepts and skills, align with children’s thinking, and enable learners to have foundations in future learning of mathematics (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). These are ideas that focus on the child, and never about what the school priorities are or what the teacher wants to teach. There are nine topics, namely: Sets, number sense, counting, number operations, pattern, measurement, data analysis, spatial relationships, and shape (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Big Ideas are then derived from these topics.

Mathematics in Singapore preschools

In Singapore, preschools typically follow these key learning areas: “Aesthetics and Creative Expression”, “Discovery of the World”, “Health, Safety and Motor Skills Development”, “Language and Literacy”, and “Numeracy” (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2022). Numeracy is a domain similar to mathematics, though it takes a more practical approach. Numeracy development guides children to learn and use numbers, learn the relationships between numbers, count, and understand patterns and shapes, to help them in their daily lives (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2022).

Children's way of learning Mathematics

How do children learn Mathematics as they explore the world? Young children are naturally curious about the world around them, and mathematics is a tool they use to make sense of what they observe. Even without formal teaching, children learn math concepts as they engage with people and objects (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). It is a natural learning experience that is both a powerful and easy tool for teachers to use.

A constructivist approach is used in teaching mathematics, the child is regarded as someone who is actively curious to learn about the world and uses prior knowledge to understand concepts and also changes existing ideas to fit new ideas (Chaillé, 2021). Previously, the concept of assimilation and accommodation was covered; this shares some similarities. Imagine a child playing with water bottles of different heights and volumes. A taller bottle may not hold more water than a shorter bottle, and through this organic learning, the child achieves both assimilation and accommodation through play.

The teacher's role in teaching Mathematics

So what does the teacher’s role look like? The teacher is not using direct instruction to teach these mathematical concepts, but by providing a rich learning environment with mathematical materials, ensuring sufficient time for math games for children, and creating projects that encourage learning and application of math concepts (Chaillé, 2021). It is simply not enough to leave a child to explore without providing the necessary materials.

Teachers spend more time teaching literacy than mathematics, with some commenting that they are better at encouraging children to love reading more than math, and the purpose of Big Ideas is about helping children understand that while counting words in order is important, they must also understand amounts (Brownell, Chen, Ginet, & Hynes-Berry, 2013). Teachers should also reframe their mindset and understand that, though literacy is important, teaching children to problem-solve is also crucial. Teachers should understand that mathematics exists everywhere, especially in what interests children, while provoking and supporting children’s learning (Chaillé, 2021).

Mathematics has been proven to benefit our future, so every learner should be granted the same opportunity in education, and knowledgeable teachers have sufficient resources to grow themselves professionally, while providing a mathematically-rich environment (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000). In the articles that follow, the Big Ideas will be elaborated.

References

Brownell, J., Chen, J.-Q., Ginet, L., & Hynes-Berry, M. (2013). Big Ideas of Early Mathematics. US: Pearson Education.

Chaillé, C. (2021). ECE314 Facilitating children's mathematical thinking (study guide). Singapore: Singapore University of Social Sciences.

Cherry, K. (23 January, 2026). Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved from Verywell Mind: https://www.verywellmind.com/gardners-theory-of-multiple-intelligences-2795161

Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2022). Nurturing early learners: A curriculum framework for preschool education in Singapore (NEL Framework 2022_v2). Retrieved from https://isomer-user-content.by.gov.sg/57/bcc520d5-5803-442d-ab8a-88998614e095/NEL%20Framework%202022_v2.pdf

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Executive Summary: Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Retrieved from https://www.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Standards_and_Positions/PSSM_ExecutiveSummary.pdf

 

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Middle & Late Childhood Development: Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Changes

Middle & Late Childhood Development: Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Changes.

Previously, an infant’s development was discussed, and it was found that they develop in a cephalocaudal pattern, with their heads developing faster than the rest of the body. As they are unable to communicate using words, crying is their main mode of communication. Then, early childhood development was discussed, where young children develop rapidly, and the roles of the educator and parent are vital during this period. Thus, middle and late childhood is the next stage of development.

Middle and late childhood is defined as when a child is between the ages of 6 and 11, where they learn about their bodies and have better movement, with brain development helping them to have flexible and reasoning thought, with peers taking over parents as their influences (Lally, Valentine-French, & Lang, 2020). They are more complicated in their thinking and have shown signs of independence, and though parents seem to take a lesser role in their level of influence over their children, it shall be clear that their role is still equally important.

In this article, the following areas of development will be addressed: Physical, cognitive, and socioemotional.

Physical development of 6 to 11-year-olds

Firstly, physical development will be discussed.

Physical growth is slow, albeit consistent, where a child grows 2 to 3 inches per year while muscle strength and mass slowly increase, with the more prominent changes being higher body height, but seemingly smaller waist and head sizes (Santrock, 2019). The child’s head or waist does not grow smaller, but it may seem smaller because the rest of the body grows rapidly in comparison. This rate of height growth is similar to early childhood, as during early childhood, they grow 2½ inches in height every year.

The prefrontal cortex in the brain develops, which involves attention, reasoning, and cognitive control, while motor skills are smoother and coordinated, and thus they need more physical activities, with boys better at gross motor and girls better at fine motor tasks (Santrock, 2019). Motor skill activities will advance during this stage, as children learn more about the capabilities of their bodies. During this stage, typically, boys participate more in ball games while girls are involved in craft activities. It may also seem likely that during this stage, fights occur more often and injuries are greater.

Cognitive development of 6 to 11-year-olds

Secondly, cognitive development will be assessed.

When children are between 7 and 11, they can do concrete operations, which are mental actions, while long-term memory is boosted, and they develop critical and creative thinking, and also, children are more logical and analytical when they use language (Santrock, 2019). Hence, they are capable of being independent and have their own ways of thinking. Previously, children needed concrete materials to understand concepts. For example, if you ask a 4-year-old to imagine an elephant sitting on a bridge, it may be too difficult. However, a 10-year-old has no issues with using his imagination. Hence, during early childhood, children need concrete learning materials, whereas during middle to late childhood, they can understand concepts through abstract materials like worksheets.

Socioemotional development of 6 to 11-year-olds

Thirdly, socioemotional development is analysed.

Children during this age start to have social comparison as they learn more about themselves, when they improve in taking perspectives to develop both self-concept and self-esteem, whereas self-concept is about domain understanding of themselves, and self-esteem is an overall understanding, and according to Erikson, children at this stage are in the industry versus inferiority stage (Santrock, 2019). Both self-concept and self-esteem may seem to be the same entity, but they are very different in how a child understands himself or herself. Self-concept is when a child knows that he is good at a certain task, such as crafts, but may need more guidance in another task, like cookery. Self-esteem is a more global perception of self, and having poor self-concept could lead to poor self-esteem. The child who is bad at cookery may have self-doubt and start to believe that, therefore, he is bad at everything. Adults need to be present to nurture children.

The Industry vs Inferiority stage is about the individual developing self-confidence in their skills or feeling inferior when they discover that they are not, usually when they start to compare themselves with peers, and adult support is crucial in helping them gain confidence in specific skills (McLeod, 2025). At this stage, children may seem fragile in their confidence, but that is because internally they are always comparing themselves to others. Not only are children constantly juggling between self-concept and self-esteem, but the amount of influence that peers have is so great that they could be affected easily, especially when the need for comparison is there. A child who is not good at cookery will compare himself with others and fall into inferiority if he is not well-supported by nurturing adults.

Therefore, parents are never out of their job in taking care of their children, even when they reach middle or late childhood. Though their influence is lesser compared to their children’s peers, their roles as nurturing parents never truly stop.

 

References

Lally, M., Valentine-French, S., & Lang, D. (2020). Middle and Late Childhood. In D. Lang, Parenting and Family Diversity Issues. Iowa State University Digital Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.31274/isudp.8

McLeod, S. (15 October, 2025). Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development. SimplyPsychology. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/erik-erikson.html

Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-Span Development: Seventeenth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

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Early Childhood Development: Physical, Cognitive & Sociomotional Growth

Children's Physical, Cognitive & Sociomotional Growth.

The early childhood years are defined as the ages up to 8, where important physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development happens, as a child’s brain is very malleable and responsive to changes through a relationship with genes, environment, and experiences (UNICEF, 2026). Thus, caregivers must be nurturing towards young children as their early years very much shape a child’s life, and in this article, the various areas of development will be understood.

Physical development of young children

Firstly, a child’s physical development will be discussed.

A child grows 2½ inches in height and 5 to 10 pounds in weight every year, while the frontal lobe of the brain grows the fastest, with gross and fine motor skills improving exponentially (Santrock, 2019). To empower children for lifetime success, they need rich early learning experiences, as they help to form new neural connections in the brain when adults are nurturing, and all areas of development are equally important, with changes in one domain affecting other areas, or even show the importance of each area, with an example of how learning to crawl enables a toddler to discover the world (NAEYC, 2026). Thus, parents or teachers should never regard academics as more important than physical or any other areas of development, as they all correlate and enhance each other.

Cognitive development of young children

Secondly, the child’s cognitive development is analysed.

At 2 years old, a child is in the ‘terrible twos’ stage, and at 3 the child is very energetic, then at 4 the child is curious and speaks a lot, and at 5 the child starts feeling responsible, which leads to at 6 the child enjoys learning from reading, storytelling, or from shows like cartoons (SingHealth Group, 2025). A young child has endless potential to learn from the environment.

Young children are in the preoperational stage, so they are unable to do operations, which are reversible mental actions, though they use symbols to understand the world, and they start to ask a lot of questions as they construct knowledge when they interact with people (Santrock, 2019). Children during this stage need more concrete materials as they are unable to imagine concepts in their brains, and they also need nurturing relationships with adults to grow and learn from.

Socioemotional development of young children

Thirdly, a child’s socioemotional development will be discussed.

Erikson explains that early childhood is when the child tries to mediate between initiative versus guilt, as children learn more about themselves in terms of body parts, material objects, and physical activities, and also a deeper understanding of emotions, and parents who are more nurturing will have children who can self-regulate better (Santrock, 2019). It can never be overstated that adults need to be caring towards children, so children never grow up feeling bad about themselves.

Play is crucial for development, in helping imagination, peer relationships, and developing language, motor skills, promotes problem-solving and creates emerging skills (NAEYC, 2026). Hence, play should never be a secondary activity but should be treated equally as important as academics or schoolwork.

Therefore, these areas of development have been discussed: Physical, cognitive, and socioemotional. A common thread that connects all of them is the role of the teacher or parent, whether it is in providing rich learning experiences or being a supportive figure, as they continue to grow and develop into their middle childhood years.

 

References

NAEYC. (2026). Principles of Child Development and Learning and Implications That Inform Practice. Retrieved from NAEYC: https://www.naeyc.org/resources/position-statements/dap/principles

Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-Span Development: Seventeenth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

SingHealth Group. (2025). Child Development Milestones: From Newborn to 6 Years Old. Retrieved from HealthXchange: https://www.healthxchange.sg/child-life-stages/child-development-milestones/child-development-milestones-newborn-six

UNICEF. (2026). Early childhood development. Retrieved from UNICEF: https://data.unicef.org/topic/early-childhood-development/overview/

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Infant Development Explained: Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Milestones

Infants' physical, cognitive, and socioemotional milestones.

Approximately 370,000 babies are born in the world every day, with about 9,800 just from the United States (Bradley, 2025). Parents and teachers alike can attest to the rapid growth and development of infants into young children, and in this article, infants’ development will be analysed according to physical, cognitive, and socioemotional milestones.

Physical development of infants

Firstly, here is how an infant develops physically.

Infants’ heads are larger than their bodies, and they have necks too weak to hold up their heads, but within 12 months, they start to learn to sit, stand, stoop, climb, and even walk, and in the second year, growth will decelerate, but they start to run or climb (Santrock, 2019). During this crucial period, infants should be handled with extreme care. There have been cases where adults other than then mothers would shake the baby, leading to irreversible consequences to the infant’s development.

Infants sleep most of the time, can lie on their stomachs to raise their head and chest at 3 months, become more vocal and mobile at 6 months, can sit with proper balance at 9 months, and can walk with some help or by themselves at 12 months (SingHealth Group, 2025). Infants also develop with a cephalocaudal pattern, where growth starts from the top, the head, and slowly moves downwards, so the eyes and brain grow faster than the jaw, and growth does not occur in a smooth path, but it is episodic (Santrock, 2019). It is clear that within the span of a year, an infant grows very quickly, and so the legs are usually the last body parts to develop.

Cognitive development of infants

Secondly, the cognitive development of infants will be discussed.

Infants develop gross and fine motor skills along with their nervous systems, so they should have reflexes that may stay for life or disappear after a few months, and Piaget describes cognitive development where children construct their cognitive worlds using schemes to organise knowledge, which are mental representations of concepts, and infant development is balancing sensorial input with motoric activity (Santrock, 2019). When infants are 18 months old, they can stack blocks to form towers (SingHealth Group, 2025). Motor skills develop together with infants’ cognitive abilities, so adults should provide rich learning resources that promote the usage of fine and gross motor skills.

Socioemotional development of infants

Thirdly, infants also have socioemotional development.

Infants use emotions as their first form of communication as they form bonds with their parents, with crying being the most important characteristic, to communicate anger, pain, or basic needs, and experts agree that within the first year, an adult should respond immediately whenever an infant cries, as they are in Erikson’s first stage of trust versus mistrust (Santrock, 2019). Thus, it is pertinent that an infant receives nurture and care during this crucial period, as they develop attachment and learn to have trust in adults, which will help their psychosocial development in early childhood.

Therefore, these are the milestones that an infant should reach at certain points in their development. Fortunately, in our modern age, there are medical professionals available to diagnose and treat any conditions should an infant fail to reach certain milestones. Moreover, in Singapore, every infant born will receive a health booklet that contains essential information and keeps track of every stage of development, including height, weight, developmental milestones, and immunisation records (Ministry of Health Singapore, 2026).

 

References

Bradley, S. (29 September, 2025). How Many Babies Are Born a Day? The Bump. Retrieved from https://www.thebump.com/a/how-many-babies-are-born-a-day

Ministry of Health Singapore. (2026). Child Health Booklet. Retrieved from Health Hub: https://www.healthhub.sg/programmes/parent-hub/child-health-booklet

Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-Span Development: Seventeenth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

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