2. The Construction of Knowledge

Construction of knowledge.

While behaviourists believe in nurture and maturationists believe in nature, constructivists advocate for a balance between the two.

Under the realm of constructivism, we have 3 theorists: Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gardner. We have to provide opportunities for children to have active engagement through the use of
1. Relevant, meaningful learning experiences
2. Concrete, open-ended materials
3. Unrushed time 
4. Differentiated learning.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory entails 4 stages: Sensorimotor (0 to 2), preoperational (3 to 7), concrete operational (7 to 11), formal operational (11 onwards). Children may deviate from these stipulated age groups, according to their individual development.

Piaget also describes an ability known as adaptation, which involves assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when children transform new information into what they already know, while accommodation is about changing what is already known to make sense of new information. So if I know that tables have 4 legs, and I see a chair, I will still call it a table as I change it to fit what I currently know. But if a teacher tells me that it is not a table, but a chair, I change what I know to fit this new information. Hence, this is a back-and-forth process.

Equilibrium or disequilibrium is simply about whether a balance between new and current information is achieved.

Vygotsky defines the zone of proximal development as the gap between the most difficult independent task a child can do and the most difficult task the child can do with support. A more knowledgeable other has to guide the child, but ensure the level of support slowly reduces to enable the child to be capable of his or her own.

This process is defined as scaffolding. Scaffolding entails 5 components: Instruction (information on what to do), Modelling (showing behaviour for children to imitate), Feeding-back (offering information based on what the child has done concerning the task objective), Questioning (enabling children to think in new ways), Cognitive Structuring (structure for thinking and acting, like stating the steps to do). Vygotsky also believes in the importance of language. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky believes in the role of social relationships.

As for Gardner, Multiple Intelligences are in every person, in various degrees. It is possible to have more than one. Learning can involve multiple intelligences too, for instance, a cookery lesson must have logical-mathematical competency, but it can also involve naturalistic intelligence, as they begin to discover and wonder how ingredients work with each other.

Children learn through play, and play is defined as an activity that is voluntary, requires active involvement, symbolic, free of external rules, focuses on action rather than outcomes, and pleasurable.

Play can also be divided into types, such as constructive play, or Parten’s Six Levels of Social Play: Unoccupied behaviour, solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative.

Smilansky defines Four Types of Cognitive Play, further enhancing Parten’s theory: Functional (Repetitive physical action), Constructive (Sensorimotor or creativity to build something), Games with rules (Understanding and accepting rules), and Dramatic (substituting an object for something imaginary).

Play is beneficial in teaching pre-academic skills. Using objects to represent supermarket groceries is one such example, and the use of symbols benefits them in learning to read. Using a toy phone to represent a real phone is no different from using a word to represent an idea or concept.

Finally, purposeful play, as defined by MOE, it must be enjoyable to children, requires the active involvement of children in exploring, developing and applying knowledge and skills, involves learning objectives that have been carefully thought through by the teacher while taking in consideration children’s interests and abilities, and it requires facilitation by teachers and this involves observing children at play to discover what they have learnt, and then designing learning activities to reinforce and/or extend their learning based on clearly identified learning objectives.

References
Chen, D. (2020). ECE102 Children as thinkers and meaning makers (study guide). Singapore: Singapore University of Social Sciences.

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1. Influential Theorists and Theories

Children are playing in the playground.

Early childhood developmental theories go way back to the 1600s. In this post, I shall attempt to describe 3 schools of thought: Behaviourists, Maturationists/Humanists, and Constructivists.

These schools of thought will be analysed according to how children learn, the role of mistakes in development, and the role of the teacher.

Colonial times.

During the Colonial Times in the 1600s, children were treated as sinful, and girls were not allowed to study.

During this period, children were seen as weak and needed adults to shape them to the “right” path. The punishment was deemed as necessary, though there are parents who fought against that. It was during this time that Comenius stood out as an advocate for equal education for boys and girls.

Romanticism.

Romanticism began in the 1700s, two groups of people emerged: Behaviourists & Humanists/Maturationists.

Behaviourists believed children were blank slates, and that children can only learn from systematic and rote instruction. The teaching style is more nurturing. This practice can still be seen in modern preschools. John Locke, Pavlov, and Skinner were key theorists who supported behaviourism. Also during romanticism, humanists or maturationists emerged. Nature is more prioritised than nurture, and Rousseau and Pestalozzi were key theorists. Two programmes were formed from this school of thought, headed by Froebel and Montesorri. Froebel believed in gifts, and adults should guide children in symbolic learning through play. During the late 1800s, progressivists emerged also. Dewey is a key figure.

1800s.

Constructivism happened during the 1900s. Children are believed to be curious learners, not passive receivers of knowledge. Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gardner were key theorists. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory also started. Preschool models such as Reggio Emilia, Bankstreet, and High Scope were also introduced.

The 1600s: Colonial Times

The 1700s: Romanticism (Behaviorists, Maturationists/Humanists)

The 1800s: Romanticism (Progressivists)

The 1900s: Constructivism

  

	Behaviourists	Constructivists	Maturationists
Assumptions about how development occurs	Blank slate, passive recipients of knowledge, nurture supersedes nature	Children are viewed as needing to actively explore their learning environments to build their understandings of the world	Development is a biological process that occurs automatically in predictable, sequential stages over time. Development unfolds according to nature’s inner plan or timetable.
Assumptions about how children learn	Development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli and reinforcement	Learning and development occur when young children interact with the environment and people around them	Acquire knowledge naturally and automatically as they grow physically and become older, if they are healthy.
Role of the environment	Key to development		Biologically and genetically predetermined patterns of change have a greater impact on development than environmental influences.
Role of the teacher	The teacher is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control of children’s learning	Teacher to scaffold and co-construct knowledge with children- provides experiences which will promote learning
The role of mistakes in development	They don’t tolerate mistakes.	Helps them to construct knowledge, the process of learning.	Mistakes are important, give them time.
Key Theorists	John Locke, Pavlov, Skinner	Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Howard Gardner	Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Johann Pestalozzi, Arnold Gesell, Montessori

I believe in both the behaviourists and constructivists. Children are blank slates, as they are waiting for knowledge to be taught to them and hence they are easily influenced by key adult figures in their lives, but they are also capable to be curious in finding out more, deeper concepts than what is already taught to them. The curriculum should be equally balanced between teacher-directed and child-directed. Jean Piaget is the theorist that impacted me the most, since my diploma days.

References

Chen, D. (2020). ECE102 Children as thinkers and meaning makers (study guide). Singapore: Singapore University of Social Sciences.

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Concrete Materials

A child playing with concrete materials.

Why is it so difficult for young children to understand things?

It is not because they are young or that they are still learning. It is about their developmental stage. 

The four stages of cognitive development

According to a theorist named Jean Piaget, children go through 4 stages of development. From 0 to 2, they are in sensorimotor, from 2 to 7, they are in preoperational, then from 7 to 11, they are in concrete operational, and finally, when they are older than 11, they are in formal operational. The definition of operation: “is the ability to accurately imagine the consequences of something happening without it actually needing to happen” (MentalHelp.net, 2020).

Children can connect symbols with objects during the preoperational stage, but they are unable to do operations, so they need to have the physical objects to learn from (Santrock, 2019). We need to use real objects, or at least pictures, to illustrate concepts when we teach them. The coronavirus can be tricky to teach, but we can begin by using pictures. Cool science experiments such as this are good at helping children gain an understanding.

Then in the concrete operational stage, children can use operations, but they are restricted to concrete objects, so they are still unable to do algebra (Santrock, 2019). When you show them 2 blocks and ask them to make a bridge without touching them, they are able to visualise it in their minds. But don't expect them to do so with objects that are somewhere else.

Whereas in the formal operational stage, children can think abstractly, and they can imagine for themselves what future they would like to create (Santrock, 2019). This is when children are becoming teenagers, and we can harness their sudden "idealism" by guiding them in a positive direction. 

How to teach Math to children

One good way to teach Math to children is using the CPA (Concrete-Pictorial-Abstract) approach. Concrete objects are first used to teach concepts, then for Pictorial, children connect physical objects to pictures, and finally for Abstract, children must have a good understanding of the previous stage, to use mathematical symbols to solve problems (MNP, 2020).

Obviously, this means that children need toys to learn from, not iPads or phones. If we allow children to use technology as the primary means of learning, they will not be able to develop properly.

References

MentalHelp.net. (2020). Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Concrete Operations. Retrieved from MentalHelp.net: https://www.mentalhelp.net/cognitive-development/piagets-concrete-operations/

MNP. (2020). CPA Approach. Retrieved from MATHS NO PROBLEM!: https://mathsnoproblem.com/en/mastery/concrete-pictorial-abstract/

Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-span Development (17th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

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Sink or Float

Children observing a boat they have constructed.

This is a popular science experiment for kindergarten children. I have done this experiment 3 times, here is a write-up of each activity. I have to mention that these activities have integrated the different domains required by NEL. There is no need to make time for "English" or "Math" lesson.

Activity 1

.Group children into 4 groups to try the next science experiment. The following are suggested instructions, children only have to ensure area is clean.
.Introduce the following materials: salt, baking soda, stones, 1 marker, 3 containers each group.
.Talk about the activity, and children have to gather hypotheses on which ingredient will cause the manipulatives to sink or float.
.Distribute worksheets with 2 sections. Instruct each group to do 1 worksheet, and to do their hypotheses on the top, the findings at the bottom.
.Get children to pour the ingredients into the 2 containers, 1 container will be empty.
.Pour water equally into the 3 containers, get them to tell the teacher to stop when water level is reached.
.Instruct them to label the containers as such: Salt, Baking Soda, Water
.Give them some time to explore the containers by dropping the manipulatives into the containers.
.Allow free-play, but only introduce the materials for them to use. Allow them to use anything in class, but put them back.
.Summarise the activity by getting children to share their findings, and compare with their hypotheses.

Activity 2

.Introduce the materials used: milk, soap bubbles, coloured water, 3 containers to hold the liquids, 1 transparent cup for them to pour inside, 1 container of random objects, 1 dropper
.Get each group to come to the teacher to collect the containers of liquids and materials, while the rest will wait.
.Encourage them to make their own hypotheses again for this experiment, then test them out by trying.
.Inform them to use the dropper to add in the liquid, so they don't mix together. Then they can add in the small objects to see whether they sink or float.
.Summarise the activity to talk about density.

Activity 3

.Divide children into groups.
.Distribute materials (that can either sink or float on water) for children, get each group to build a mini boat on their own using the materials. They are allowed to use anything else, but they must ask permission.
.Inform them the boat has to stay together and floating on the water.
.Show each boat, ellicit hypothesis from the children on whether each will float or sink.
.Bring each boat to the container of water near the garden to test out, place them one by one gently on the water, to test the hypothesis.
.Mention the boat must float for 10 seconds to succeed. Get them to redo when unsuccessful.
.Summarise the activity, get children to share their honest reflections. Talk about what makes their boat float. (E.g. Using light materials)
.Ellicit curiosity, ask them how a heavy ship floats on water.
.Talk about principle of buoyancy.
.Link to the heavy aeroplane able to fly in the sky.
.Get them to try the experiment with an orange, unpeeled then peeled at home. Get them to share their findings the next day.

(The next day)

.Talk about the Science experiment they conducted at home the previous day, get them to share with their friends on their hypothesis and findings.

.Get them to share about what they did at home, for them to remember what they did. (Nobody tried the experiment at home)

.Link to the principle of buoyancy, of the ship.

.Mention that heavy objects will sink in water, but when placed in an object that has buoyancy it will float.

.Demonstrate the orange science experiment with them, talk about how the skin gives buoyancy but the orange will sink in water.

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Toxic People

Toxic people.

Before tackling this issue, we need to define what toxic people are. 

What are toxic people?

A toxic person is defined as someone who makes you feel physically and emotionally tired and negative, but what makes it worse is that they are very good at confusing you, and you realise you trust their opinion more than you trust yourself (Langslet, 2018).

We can identify such people in our lives, but the challenge is to cut them away.

While adults can easily walk out of a toxic relationship, teenagers struggle with that, as they believe strongly in the opinions of others, even if a friend is constantly being sarcastic or even abusive, so they need self-esteem to realise that they are being abused (Rivera, 2013).

The impact of toxic people on young children

What makes it worse is that young children are susceptible to such people. It affects their development later on. Verbal, physical or sexual abuse has long-term effects on children’s self-esteem. Sometimes adults need to be discerning as to who the toxic people are, to protect these young ones. We as adults will sometimes struggle with healing those wounds, but are children capable of doing so?

Some relationships are worth keeping or repairing, but some people are like snakes. If you get bitten by a snake once, it is obviously the snake's fault. But if you allow the snake to bite you again, you are the one to blame. In the same way, we tell children to keep their hands on their laps; when they don't, and their hands get injured, the blame lies with them.

Hence, if certain people do not give you peace of mind, you have to make a difficult decision.

References

Langslet, K. (2018, April 6). 3 Signs a Toxic Person Is Manipulating You (and What to Do About It). Retrieved from GREATiST: https://greatist.com/live/dealing-with-a-toxic-person#8

Rivera, M. (2013). TOXIC PEOPLE. The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education, 33.

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Independence in Children

We have all been there. For those of us who have kids, getting out of the house on time is already a challenge. Shoes are not tied. Clothes are not worn properly. Then we start to help them, we start to scold them.

But, it is during these time-restricted moments that learning has to take place.

Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt

Erikson describes autonomy vs shame & doubt as the second stage in his psychosocial theory, it entails children discovering their will, and they should not be restricted or punished, as they will develop shame and doubt about themselves (Santrock, 2019).

Allow children to make mistakes

As adults, we should allow children to make mistakes. Children are not miniature versions of ourselves. They have unlimited energy and potential. They need adults to be there to encourage them.

For myself, I was quite restrained or pampered when young. That caused me to cry even when going home alone at Primary 3, and that involves only crossing 2 roads. I believe children should be free to be by themselves. Check out this video, one of the children used to be in my current kindergarten.

References

Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-span Development (17th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

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Humility

Humility.

What is humility?

I think humility is a virtue that adults should teach to their children. It is not good enough to tell them to have it when we do not practise it ourselves.

Recently, I borrowed a book from the library. I placed it at the water bottle rack that the children use. It was my oversight, so water got onto it. The pages were soaked, and 2 of the pages were stuck together, and when I tried to peel them open, they tore.

I told my classes that my plan was to admit to the librarian staff and pay the charges as necessary. Hopefully, that day shall become a memory forever etched in their minds. An adult actually admitted to his mistake and is going to do something about it.

So earlier on today, I admitted it to the library staff. Honestly, I don't have to do it. I can just return the book as if nothing had happened. But what would that do?

Honesty is also another virtue that adults should have.

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